Tuesday, November 30, 2004
Flash memory
http://www.bambooweb.com/articles/f/l/Flash_memory.html
Flash memory is a form of EEPROM that allows multiple memory locations to be erased or written in one programming operation. Normal EEPROM only allows one location at a time to be erased or written, meaning that flash can operate at higher effective speeds when the systems using it read and write to different locations at the same time. All types of flash memory and EEPROM wear out after a certain number of erase operations.
Flash memory is made in two forms: NOR flash and NAND flash. The names refer to the type of logic gate used in each storage cell.
NOR flash was the first type to be developed, invented by Intel in 1988. It has long erase and write times, but has a full address/data (memory) interface that allows random access to any location. This makes it suitable for storage of program code that needs to be infrequently updated, as in digital cameras and PDAs. Its endurance is 10,000 to 100,000 erase cycles. NOR-based flash is the basis of early flash-based removable media; Compact Flash and SmartMedia are both based on it.
NAND flash from Toshiba followed in 1989. It has faster erase and write times, higher density, and lower cost per bit than NOR flash, and ten times the endurance. However its I/O interface allows only sequential access to data. This makes it suitable for mass-storage devices such as PC cards and various memory cards, and somewhat less useful for computer memory. NAND-based flash has led to several much smaller removable media formats, MMC, Secure Digital and Memory Stick.
Flash memory is a form of EEPROM that allows multiple memory locations to be erased or written in one programming operation. Normal EEPROM only allows one location at a time to be erased or written, meaning that flash can operate at higher effective speeds when the systems using it read and write to different locations at the same time. All types of flash memory and EEPROM wear out after a certain number of erase operations.
Flash memory is made in two forms: NOR flash and NAND flash. The names refer to the type of logic gate used in each storage cell.
NOR flash was the first type to be developed, invented by Intel in 1988. It has long erase and write times, but has a full address/data (memory) interface that allows random access to any location. This makes it suitable for storage of program code that needs to be infrequently updated, as in digital cameras and PDAs. Its endurance is 10,000 to 100,000 erase cycles. NOR-based flash is the basis of early flash-based removable media; Compact Flash and SmartMedia are both based on it.
NAND flash from Toshiba followed in 1989. It has faster erase and write times, higher density, and lower cost per bit than NOR flash, and ten times the endurance. However its I/O interface allows only sequential access to data. This makes it suitable for mass-storage devices such as PC cards and various memory cards, and somewhat less useful for computer memory. NAND-based flash has led to several much smaller removable media formats, MMC, Secure Digital and Memory Stick.
SD Card
http://www.bambooweb.com/articles/s/e/Secure_Digital_Card.html
Secure Digital, or SD, is flash memory data storage device based on Toshiba's earlier Multi Media Cards (MMC). SD is slightly thicker, and includes features that allow the secure exchange of data, enabling usage restrictions to placate copyright holders. It has essentially replaced MMC outright. It had been said that Secure Digital cards would become ubiquitous, replacing diskettes, but since has failed to do so, largely because of the popularity of USB Keydrives. Its price is still prohibitively high, costing more and holding less data then its main competition, the larger Compact Flash.
PDA devices such as Pocket PCs and Palm-powered devices frequently feature SD slots. PalmOne, HP, Dell, Toshiba, and other PDA manufacturers have made SD a standard on all of their PDAs. Many of the Sharp Zaurus models also use the SD format. SD is fairly well supported in the digital camera industry as well, used in all Kodak cameras. It's also the memory of choice in some of Nokia's higher end cell phones, such as the N-Gage and the 36xx series. Olympus also produced some cameras with SD capability, but abandoned it in favor of its own xD-Picture cards.
Secure Digital, or SD, is flash memory data storage device based on Toshiba's earlier Multi Media Cards (MMC). SD is slightly thicker, and includes features that allow the secure exchange of data, enabling usage restrictions to placate copyright holders. It has essentially replaced MMC outright. It had been said that Secure Digital cards would become ubiquitous, replacing diskettes, but since has failed to do so, largely because of the popularity of USB Keydrives. Its price is still prohibitively high, costing more and holding less data then its main competition, the larger Compact Flash.
PDA devices such as Pocket PCs and Palm-powered devices frequently feature SD slots. PalmOne, HP, Dell, Toshiba, and other PDA manufacturers have made SD a standard on all of their PDAs. Many of the Sharp Zaurus models also use the SD format. SD is fairly well supported in the digital camera industry as well, used in all Kodak cameras. It's also the memory of choice in some of Nokia's higher end cell phones, such as the N-Gage and the 36xx series. Olympus also produced some cameras with SD capability, but abandoned it in favor of its own xD-Picture cards.
Monday, November 29, 2004
The Special and General Theory of Relativity
Einstein, Albert. 1920. Relativity: The Special and General Theory
www.bartleby.com/173/
Bartleby.com is a very good site covering most of the topics in physics, medicine
www.bartleby.com/173/
Bartleby.com is a very good site covering most of the topics in physics, medicine
The Special and General Theory
Einstein, Albert. 1920. Relativity: The Special and General Theory
www.bartleby.com/173/
Bartleby.com is a very good site covering most of the topics in physics, medicine
www.bartleby.com/173/
Bartleby.com is a very good site covering most of the topics in physics, medicine
Sunday, November 14, 2004
Macroeconomics & Microeconomics
Macroeconomics:
The study of the behavior an economy at the aggregate level, as opposed to the level of a specific subgroups or individuals (which is called microeconomics). For example, a macroeconomist might consider the industrial sector, the services sector or the farm sector, but he/she will not consider specific parts of any of these sectors. Factors studies include inflation, unemployment, and industrial production, often with the aim of studying the effect of government policy on these factors.
http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Macroeconomics
Macroeconomics is the study of the entire economy in terms of the total amount of goods and services produced, total income earned, the level of employment of productive resources, and the general behavior of prices. Macroeconomics can be used to analyse how best to influence policy goals such as economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a sustainable balance of payments.
Until the 1930s most economic analysis concentrated on individual firms and industries. With the Great Depression of the 1930s, however, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of macroeconomics began to expand. Particularly influential were the ideas of John Maynard Keynes, who used the concept of aggregate demand to explain fluctuations in output and unemployment. Keynesian economics is based on his ideas.
One of the challenges of economics has been a struggle to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models. Starting in the 1950s, macroeconomists developed micro-based models of macroeconomic behavior (such as the consumption function). Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen developed the first comprehensive national macroeconomic model, which he first built for the Netherlands and later applied to the United States and the United Kingdom after World War II. The first global macroecomomic model, Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates LINK project, was initiated by Lawrence Klein and was mentioned in his citation for the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel in 1980.
Theorists such as Robert Lucas Jr suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional Keynesian macroeconomic models were questionable as they were not derived from assumptions about individual behavior. However, New Keynesian macroeconomics has generally presented microeconomic models to shore up their macroeconomic theorizing, while the Lucas critique has fallen from favor.
In 2004, the Norwegian Finn E. Kydland and the American Edward C. Prescott, won the Nobel Prize in economy for their work in this area.
Today the main schools of macroeconomic thought are as follows:
1) Keynesian economics, which focuses on aggregate demand to explain levels of unemployment and the business cycle. That is, business cycle fluctuations should be reduced through fiscal policy (the government spends more or less depending on the situation) and monetary policy. Early Keynesian macroeconomics was "activist," calling for regular use of policy to stabilize the capitalist economy, while some Keynesians called for the use of incomes policies.
2) Monetarism, led by Milton Friedman, which holds that inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon. It rejects fiscal policy because it leads to "crowding out" of the private sector. Further, it does not wish to combat inflation or deflation by means of active demand management as in Keynesian economics, but by means of monetary policy rules, such as keeping the rate of growth of the money supply constant over time.
3) Post-Keynesian economics represents a dissent from mainstream Keynesian economics, emphasizing the role of uncertainty and the historical process in macroeconomics.
4) New classical economics, which emphasises the idea of rational expectations. Their original theoretical impetus was the charge that Keynesian economics lacks microeconomic foundations -- i.e. its assertions are not founded in basic economic theory. This school emerged during the 1970s. This school assumed that at any one time, there was only one "market clearing" equilibrium and that the economy automatically gravitated to that equilibrium. Fluctuations occurred due to changes in potential output, i.e., changes in aggregate supply.
5) New Keynesian economics, which developed partly in response to new classical economics. It strives to provide microeconomic foundations to Keynesian economics by showing how imperfect markets can justify demand management.
6) Supply-side economics, which deliniates quite clearly the roles of monetary policy and fiscal policy. The focus for monetary policy should be purely on the price of money as determined by the supply of money and the demand for money. It advocates a monetary policy that directly targets the value of money and does not target interest rates at all. Typically the value of money is measured by reference to gold or some other reference. The focus of fiscal policy is to raise revenue for worthy government investments with a clear recognition of the impact that taxation has on domestic trade.
7) Austrian macroeconomics presents another laissez-faire school of macroeconomics. It focuses on the business cycle that arises from government or central-bank interference that leads to deviations from the natural rate of interest.
Microeconomics
The study of the behavior of small economic units, such as that of individual consumers or households. opposite of macroeconomics.
The study of the behavior an economy at the aggregate level, as opposed to the level of a specific subgroups or individuals (which is called microeconomics). For example, a macroeconomist might consider the industrial sector, the services sector or the farm sector, but he/she will not consider specific parts of any of these sectors. Factors studies include inflation, unemployment, and industrial production, often with the aim of studying the effect of government policy on these factors.
http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Macroeconomics
Macroeconomics is the study of the entire economy in terms of the total amount of goods and services produced, total income earned, the level of employment of productive resources, and the general behavior of prices. Macroeconomics can be used to analyse how best to influence policy goals such as economic growth, price stability, full employment and the attainment of a sustainable balance of payments.
Until the 1930s most economic analysis concentrated on individual firms and industries. With the Great Depression of the 1930s, however, and the development of the concept of national income and product statistics, the field of macroeconomics began to expand. Particularly influential were the ideas of John Maynard Keynes, who used the concept of aggregate demand to explain fluctuations in output and unemployment. Keynesian economics is based on his ideas.
One of the challenges of economics has been a struggle to reconcile macroeconomic and microeconomic models. Starting in the 1950s, macroeconomists developed micro-based models of macroeconomic behavior (such as the consumption function). Dutch economist Jan Tinbergen developed the first comprehensive national macroeconomic model, which he first built for the Netherlands and later applied to the United States and the United Kingdom after World War II. The first global macroecomomic model, Wharton Econometric Forecasting Associates LINK project, was initiated by Lawrence Klein and was mentioned in his citation for the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel in 1980.
Theorists such as Robert Lucas Jr suggested (in the 1970s) that at least some traditional Keynesian macroeconomic models were questionable as they were not derived from assumptions about individual behavior. However, New Keynesian macroeconomics has generally presented microeconomic models to shore up their macroeconomic theorizing, while the Lucas critique has fallen from favor.
In 2004, the Norwegian Finn E. Kydland and the American Edward C. Prescott, won the Nobel Prize in economy for their work in this area.
Today the main schools of macroeconomic thought are as follows:
1) Keynesian economics, which focuses on aggregate demand to explain levels of unemployment and the business cycle. That is, business cycle fluctuations should be reduced through fiscal policy (the government spends more or less depending on the situation) and monetary policy. Early Keynesian macroeconomics was "activist," calling for regular use of policy to stabilize the capitalist economy, while some Keynesians called for the use of incomes policies.
2) Monetarism, led by Milton Friedman, which holds that inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon. It rejects fiscal policy because it leads to "crowding out" of the private sector. Further, it does not wish to combat inflation or deflation by means of active demand management as in Keynesian economics, but by means of monetary policy rules, such as keeping the rate of growth of the money supply constant over time.
3) Post-Keynesian economics represents a dissent from mainstream Keynesian economics, emphasizing the role of uncertainty and the historical process in macroeconomics.
4) New classical economics, which emphasises the idea of rational expectations. Their original theoretical impetus was the charge that Keynesian economics lacks microeconomic foundations -- i.e. its assertions are not founded in basic economic theory. This school emerged during the 1970s. This school assumed that at any one time, there was only one "market clearing" equilibrium and that the economy automatically gravitated to that equilibrium. Fluctuations occurred due to changes in potential output, i.e., changes in aggregate supply.
5) New Keynesian economics, which developed partly in response to new classical economics. It strives to provide microeconomic foundations to Keynesian economics by showing how imperfect markets can justify demand management.
6) Supply-side economics, which deliniates quite clearly the roles of monetary policy and fiscal policy. The focus for monetary policy should be purely on the price of money as determined by the supply of money and the demand for money. It advocates a monetary policy that directly targets the value of money and does not target interest rates at all. Typically the value of money is measured by reference to gold or some other reference. The focus of fiscal policy is to raise revenue for worthy government investments with a clear recognition of the impact that taxation has on domestic trade.
7) Austrian macroeconomics presents another laissez-faire school of macroeconomics. It focuses on the business cycle that arises from government or central-bank interference that leads to deviations from the natural rate of interest.
Microeconomics
The study of the behavior of small economic units, such as that of individual consumers or households. opposite of macroeconomics.
Sunday, November 07, 2004
Emerging India set for special EU partnership(Reuters)8 November 2004
BRUSSELS - Once written off as the poor cousin of Asian powerhouse China, India is to open talks today to forge a strategic partnership with the European Union, a status so far restricted to just five big countries.
“India is very interested in this partnership, it will give it the status of a big player,” said an EU official ahead of the bloc’s one-day meeting with Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and two of his ministers in the Hague, the Netherlands.
“It will put them in a club of EU special partners alongside the United States, Canada, Japan, China and Russia.”
The EU, as a bloc, is both the leading foreign investor in India and its biggest trading partner.
But it ploughs 10 times as much investment into China, and its total trade with India is worth less than 20 percent of the vigorous flow of exports and imports between Europe and China.
Fostering healthier economic relations is a key part of the strategic partnership, an action plan the two sides expect to approve at their next annual meeting in 2005.
But they are also keen to improve cooperation in the battles against terrorism and the spread of weapons of mass destruction.
Many Europeans also believe India -- which is pressing for a permanent seat in the UN Security Council -- could be a multilateralist ally in resisting what they see as the current US administration’s unilateralism.
“It is important that we start coordinating with India, not only to strengthen the U.N. but also to make preparations together for international meetings such as those on the protection of women and climate change,” the EU official said.
Shortly before leaving for Europe yesterday, Singh said the two sides were ”natural partners” and welcomed the new arrangement as “recognition of India’s growing stature and influence”.
The tensions between India and Pakistan over Kashmir, which New Delhi has long maintained is not a subject for outside mediation, will be discussed at today’s meeting.
“At the summit the EU will encourage India to make progress in agreeing on substantive confidence-building measures ... but we cannot expect a rapid progress: a cautious, gradual approach is needed,” Dutch European Affairs Minister Atzo Nicolai said.
Nicolai, whose country holds the rotating presidency of the European Union, said the bloc was encouraged by the “shifting parameters in India-Pakistan relations during the last months”.
Singh’s centre-left Congress party, which returned to power at the head of a communist-backed coalition earlier this year, has said it may set up economic zones with advantageous taxes, tariffs and labour laws to encourage foreign investment.
But the European Union will still press Singh — architect of a reform process that got under way in 1991 -- to cut red tape and scrap rules that restrict foreign investors to minority shareholdings in sectors such as civil aviation and financial services.
The EU will also seek a commitment from India to participate in its multibillion-dollar Galileo navigation satellite project, which is due to come on line in 2008 as an alternative to the U.S. Global Positioning System (GPS).
China has put up 230 million euros to join. India has spoken of 300 million euros.
http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticle.asp?xfile=data/business/2004/November/business_November85.xml§ion=business&col=
“India is very interested in this partnership, it will give it the status of a big player,” said an EU official ahead of the bloc’s one-day meeting with Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and two of his ministers in the Hague, the Netherlands.
“It will put them in a club of EU special partners alongside the United States, Canada, Japan, China and Russia.”
The EU, as a bloc, is both the leading foreign investor in India and its biggest trading partner.
But it ploughs 10 times as much investment into China, and its total trade with India is worth less than 20 percent of the vigorous flow of exports and imports between Europe and China.
Fostering healthier economic relations is a key part of the strategic partnership, an action plan the two sides expect to approve at their next annual meeting in 2005.
But they are also keen to improve cooperation in the battles against terrorism and the spread of weapons of mass destruction.
Many Europeans also believe India -- which is pressing for a permanent seat in the UN Security Council -- could be a multilateralist ally in resisting what they see as the current US administration’s unilateralism.
“It is important that we start coordinating with India, not only to strengthen the U.N. but also to make preparations together for international meetings such as those on the protection of women and climate change,” the EU official said.
Shortly before leaving for Europe yesterday, Singh said the two sides were ”natural partners” and welcomed the new arrangement as “recognition of India’s growing stature and influence”.
The tensions between India and Pakistan over Kashmir, which New Delhi has long maintained is not a subject for outside mediation, will be discussed at today’s meeting.
“At the summit the EU will encourage India to make progress in agreeing on substantive confidence-building measures ... but we cannot expect a rapid progress: a cautious, gradual approach is needed,” Dutch European Affairs Minister Atzo Nicolai said.
Nicolai, whose country holds the rotating presidency of the European Union, said the bloc was encouraged by the “shifting parameters in India-Pakistan relations during the last months”.
Singh’s centre-left Congress party, which returned to power at the head of a communist-backed coalition earlier this year, has said it may set up economic zones with advantageous taxes, tariffs and labour laws to encourage foreign investment.
But the European Union will still press Singh — architect of a reform process that got under way in 1991 -- to cut red tape and scrap rules that restrict foreign investors to minority shareholdings in sectors such as civil aviation and financial services.
The EU will also seek a commitment from India to participate in its multibillion-dollar Galileo navigation satellite project, which is due to come on line in 2008 as an alternative to the U.S. Global Positioning System (GPS).
China has put up 230 million euros to join. India has spoken of 300 million euros.
http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticle.asp?xfile=data/business/2004/November/business_November85.xml§ion=business&col=
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